By Justin Martin

I was raised to believe in grace. That we can be touched by the divine and transformed into a better person….But you should also know that I was raised to believe in retribution. So if you step out of line, I will be there. – Matthew Murdock (“Heaven’s Half Hour”)

You know, in another life, you might be defending me. ‘Cause that’s what good men do, right? Defend their worst enemies? – Benjamin Poindexter (“Isle of Joy”)

These exchanges between Matthew Murdock/Daredevil and his enemies in Daredevil: Born Again, encapsulate what anthropologist Douglas Fry describes as two variations of the reciprocity principle. Broadly construed, this principle is believed to constitute both a cornerstone of human morality and a common theme across major religious traditions. The first is more centered around actions toward the self and how one responds. This orientation revolves around paying someone back, or reciprocating another’s action (positive or negative), in kind. It is fundamentally reactive, as it is a response to what one has done (or not done) to another. Common examples include gift giving, resource sharing, and retaliation or revenge.

The second is more other-focused. This variation is implied in the Old Testament and explicitly articulated in the New Testament, and focuses on what we can do for others. Or, as Christian philosopher Paul Ricoeur asserts, out of regard for others. It is fundamentally a proactive approach toward social relations, focusing more on how people should be treated, whether or not such treatment is reciprocated. It is commonly referred to as the Golden Rule. And as with the more general reciprocity principle, this version is also ubiquitous across cultures. Whereas the first quote appeals more to the self-oriented variation, the second appeals more to the other-oriented variation.

As an exploration of what Ricoeur suggests is a conundrum inherent in justice considerations–namely, that instances of injustice within social relations are common, but ascertaining the best or most “just” ways to remedy them is rare–Born Again embraces the tension between these two orientations to reciprocity. This tension is inherent to what it means to strive towards a more just society, and has implications for both secular (moral) and sacred (theological) frameworks for social relations. It is also a tension that, as Fry suggests, strikes at the heart of being human. While forms of retribution are common across cultures, so are methods of resolving conflict that do not involve physical aggression, especially lethal forms.

This exploration occurs against the backdrop of the “vigilante question”–a question legal scholar Stephanie Juliano notes goes back to at least the Middle Ages. The series sees Matt interact with multiple different vigilantes, occupying varying societal positions. In addition to his position as a lawyer, everyday citizens and cops engage in vigilante actions as expressions of their own form of justice. And many of the latter’s actions become sanctioned by Wilson Fisk/Kingpin once he becomes mayor. New Yorkers are also interviewed about their views on crime, law enforcement, and vigilantes across multiple episodes. Consistent with Juliano’s analysis of the social, cultural, and political factors informing vigilantism across centuries, Born Again’s portrayal of a city characterized by vigilantism grounds the series due to its numerous justice considerations while also encouraging viewers to reflect on what it means for individuals and the society they share to be more just.

The series also grounds the vigilante question in a related question about the nature of violence and the human capacity to overcome it. Fisk, who is trying to better himself by serving others as Mayor, tells Matt, “It’s hard to come to terms with a violent nature. Hating the power it has over us.” This exchange in the opening episode (“Heaven’s Half Hour”) sets the tone for the rest of the season, one that both evolves and calcifies in a particularly violent finale (“Straight to Hell”), ending with Mayor Fisk (1) fully embracing his kingpin role, (2) governing through authoritarianism and martial law, and (3) Daredevil working alongside the Punisher and recruiting others throughout the city to take it back.

Gadflies and System Vulnerabilities

In philosophy, gadflies are individuals who deliberately irritate and challenge others, the status quo, and/or those in authority through ideas, questions, demands, etc. One of the more notable gadflies within Western thought is Socrates. Similarly, the prophets of the Old Testament and Jesus himself can be viewed as gadflies to the extent they caused or called for disruptions in the prevailing secular or religious social orders. Christian philosopher Johannes van der Ven suggests that critiques of certain religious practices and systems are a feature of religious traditions. Although gadflies vary widely in both the source and content of their agitation, one unifying feature is their ability to encourage individuals to reflect on and reconsider aspects of both their lives and their societies. Societies they co-construct through normative interactions and relationships.

In Born Again, Matt/Daredevil also encourages us to reflect on and reconsider our social relations, mainly concerning the self-oriented aspect of the reciprocity principle. But instead of encouraging everyday citizens to repay in kind those who have hurt them, Daredevil, as a symbol of retribution, punishes those who appear to be above the law, or who are at least outside its radar. The implication is that in a city where justice is often lacking, citizens are reminded they have an advocate–both legal (Matt) and extralegal (Daredevil)–to seek justice on their behalf. The episodes “Excessive Force” and “Art for Art’s Sake” symbolize this well. The serial killer Muse commits his crimes underground, near a closed-down metro line. The police are unable to locate Muse’s secluded hideout and only find it after Daredevil frees one of Muse’s victims, who can point them to its location. It is clear that Muse likely was not going to be stopped using normal law enforcement means. Or at least not anytime soon. Using his heightened senses and extensive martial arts training, Daredevil reminds those who perpetrate injustice that harm will be reciprocated as long as they try to escape accountability. And as Daredevil’s supporters and other vigilantes throughout the season indicate, some people appreciate being reminded of the moral principle that harms committed against others should not go unpunished, and the best social relations are those where individuals are treated as ends and not simply means.

Like notable gadflies throughout history, Daredevil is animated by the distinction between the systems of social regulation and order (e.g., norms, policies, traditions, rules) and moral principles (e.g., promoting welfare, justice, and human rights). In Born Again, the distinction is primarily examined through the tension between staying within the bounds of the law and operating outside of it. A tension symbolized by his dual responsibilities as a lawyer and as a vigilante. He simultaneously (1) defends the legal system and its potential for a proper alignment with the moral principles underlying its existence and (2) undermines it during those instances where he deems the gap is too wide. As he tells his law partner Kirsten Mcduffie at the height of his frustrations with the system in “Isle of Joy,” “We’re not serving justice here, you know? We’re babysitting chaos.”

In many ways, Fisk’s brilliance as a villain in the series lies in his understanding of and response to this tension. By becoming mayor, he succeeds using some of society’s legitimate tools of social order and regulation (e.g., campaigning, elections). At the same time, he subverts and disregards them to immoral ends whenever it suits his purposes. As he reflects in “Straight to Hell”, “I…ran for mayor to save this city…but opportunities present themselves.”

Matt’s gadfly nature is also made salient through his religious beliefs, as a Catholic text concerning being an advocate of the poor and a pursuer of justice in “Excessive Force” appears to have a significant bearing on his vigilantism. He reads the text at the beginning of the episode during a morning devotional, and it is narrated later in the episode as he saves Angela Ayala, a minor and apparent budding vigilante, from the serial killer Muse. Religious beliefs also inform his decisions to temper his vigilante instinct, as he tells Fisk in “Heaven’s Half Hour” about being raised to believe in grace, divine relationship, and forgiveness. As scholar Daniel Clark notes, Catholicism is an important influence on these beliefs in prior seasons. Such influential contexts and relationships include, but are not limited to, his time spent at the Catholic orphanage Saint Agnes, his relationship with Father Lantom, and his frequent reflections on the spiritual implications of his (in)action in the face of grave injustice.

Reciprocity and Its Vagaries

Although Daredevil’s vigilantism has limitations in accordance with the other-oriented variation of the reciprocity principle (e.g., seeking justice for those who do not reciprocate and his strong prohibition against killing), including selfless acts like taking an assassin’s bullet for Fisk (“Isle of Joy”), his methods are nevertheless mostly retributive, and thus frontload the self-oriented variation. Further, the season’s themes concerning vigilantism and violence tend to emphasize the people Daredevil harms more than those he helps, as explored through his girlfriend, Dr. Heather Glenn, and nemesis, Fisk. Whereas Heather is interested in the psychology of vigilantes and wary of their violent methods (“Isle of Joy”), Fisk wants to preserve the right of the state to exercise legitimate violence against criminals (despite his willingness to endorse excessive force). As Mayor, he understands the threat vigilantism poses to social order and regulation once the legitimate use of violence is “outsourced” to everyday citizens. Albeit extreme, his interpretation and application of legal precedent positions Fisk opposite Daredevil, who subordinates social order and regulation to the ideals of justice whenever he deems the government incapable of protecting its citizens. Once Fisk learns Matt revived his Daredevil identity (“Art for Art’s Sake”), he explains the threat Daredevil’s vigilantism poses:

He broke bones. Broke spirits….All because of this twisted, delusional man….Because of his righteousness.

Regardless of the nature or source of the criticism, the underlying concern is whether Daredevil’s actions are helping create a more humane and just city. A concern Matt himself often shares, and, as he mentions to Fisk in the first episode, ultimately led to his decision to cease being Daredevil.

It is the interrogation of this concern that also makes Born Again a cautionary tale about the human limits of trying to right wrongs on our own. As Ricoeur suggests, it is easier to identify injustice than to develop the best way to address it. Moreover, the New Testament encourages people to ground their social relations within the other-centered aspect of the reciprocity principle, or the Golden Rule, which Jesus calls the second greatest commandment. Scripture encourages reflection on the dangers of retribution and judging others; reflections that also appear to inform Daredevil’s approach to vigilantism. Despite his use of violence, he believes in the sanctity of life and generally prohibits living by the sword, lest he dies by it (Matthew 26: 50-42).

Given his religious convictions, it is also reasonable to interpret these actions through the lens of trying not to judge others outside of the justice encounter. This could mean, for instance, stepping outside of the law to apprehend extremely violent criminals yet turning them over to the legal system, believing the (1) legal system will work properly and in doing so, (2) criminals will have an opportunity to change for the better and reintegrate into society. To instead take matters into his own hands and kill them as a final judgment, one could surmise, would be to arrogantly assume he could accurately judge others by the same standard that he, as a fallible, sinful individual, cannot fully live up to himself (Matthew 7:1-3). Moreover, instead of focusing primarily on what one can gain out of interactions with others, scripture encourages lending to, being good to, loving (Luke 6:32-36), and forgiving (Luke 6:37) others–actions consistent with the Golden Rule and the maintenance of just social relations.

Therefore, just as people viewing Born Again through a secular framework may reflect on the dynamics and tensions between the social (e.g., order and regulation) and the moral (e.g., justice and human rights), the role of violence in justice pursuits, and the difference between justice and retribution, believers may attempt to work through a similar process. Namely, between advocating for justice and loving others as Christ commanded. And while Daredevil, despite his religious convictions, often falls short of Jesus’ commands to live a nonviolent life centered on loving, forgiving, and sacrificing for others, Born Again’s ability to keep religious considerations at the forefront in a city (somewhat) grounded in reality and seeped in injustice is noteworthy. These dynamics and potential tensions may help partially explain the series’s popularity and renewal for a third season.

Toward a More Just Society

The principle of reciprocity undergirds social relations, and its application is a major concern within both sacred and secular domains. It is also fundamental to understanding what it means to be moral persons co-constructing just societies. Born Again’s interrogation of this principle through competing social and moral considerations provides its audience the opportunity to reflect on what types of actions will and will not work within such a just society.  Through centering vigilantism and violence throughout this exploration, Born Again reminds us that to be human is to care about justice. It also encourages reflection on scriptural perspectives concerning this human impulse. Reflection that hopefully moves us toward more just social relations.